A Study on the Brain’s Addiction to Drugs

What happens in your brain when you ingest a drug? Some drugs, such as marijuana and heroin, have a similar structure to chemical messengers, called neurotransmitters, which are naturally produced by the brain. Because of this similarity, these drugs are able to “fool” the brain's receptors and activate nerve cells to send abnormal messages.

A study conducted by Dr. Jodi Gilman at Massachusetts General Hospital-Harvard Center for Addiction Medicine involved scanning the brains of 20 pot smokers, ages 18 to 25. What she and fellow researchers at Harvard and Northwestern University found within those scans surprised them. Even in the seven participants who smoked only once or twice a week, there was evidence of structural differences in two significant regions of the brain. The more the subjects smoked, the greater the differences.

However, some marijuana use by healthy adults seems to pose minimal risk and may even be slightly beneficial in some cases. However, , with the brain developing into the mid-20s, young people who smoke early and often are more likely to have learning and mental health problems. In the Harvard-Northwestern study, differences between the brains of young adult marijuana smokers and those of nonsmokers are shown in the diagram. In these composite scans, colors represent the differences — in the shape of the amygdala, top, and nucleus accumbens. Yellow indicates areas that are most different, red the least.

This study, however, was preliminary and small; the team scanned the brains of only 40 young adults, most from Boston-area colleges. Half were nonusers; half reported smoking for one to six years and showed no signs of dependence. Besides the seven light smokers, nine used three to five days a week and four used, on average, daily. All smokers showed abnormalities in the shape, density and volume of the nucleus accumbens, which “is at the core of motivation, the core of pleasure and pain, and every decision that you make,” explained Dr. Hans Breiter, a co-author of the study and professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Northwestern’s medical school. Attempts to replicate the study on a larger scale are underway.

Read More

Scientists Convert Human Skin Cells Directly Into Brain Cells

Scientists are making steady progress on Huntington’s, a genetically inherited disorder that gradually weakens patients' muscle control and cognitive capacity until they die- usually some 20 or so years after initial symptoms. This week, a breakthrough has been discovered that involves converting human skin cells into a specific type of brain cell that is affected by Huntington's. 

Usually, stem cells (‘blank’, unspecialized cells) have been used to convert to brain cells, but skin cells are more widely available which allows for faster transplants.

Huntington's disease especially affects medium spiny neurons, which are involved in initiating and controlling movement and can be found in a part of the basal ganglia called the corpus striatum. This part of the brain also contains proteins called transcription factors, which control the rate at which genetic information is copied from DNA to messenger RNA.

To reprogram the adult human skin cells, the researchers created an environment that closely mimics that of brain cells. Exposure to two types of microRNA, miR-9 and miR-124, changes the cells into a mix of different types of neurons. "We think that the microRNAs are really doing the heavy lifting," said co-first author Matheus Victor, although the team admits that the precise machinations remain a mystery.

When transplanted into the brains of mice, the converted cells survived at least six months while showing functional and morphological properties similar to native neurons. They have not yet been tested in mice with a model of Huntington's disease to see if this has any effect on the symptoms. This could potentially change the way Huntington’s is viewed. With the ability to transplant cells, we may now be on the verge of a new form of treatment – and eventually a cure – for such a threatening disease.

Read More

Cure for Spinal Cord Paralysis: World First as Man with Completely Severed Spine Walks Again

British Doctors have managed to stimulate the regeneration of spinal cord neurons to enable sensation in paralyzed Darek Fidyk’s lower body. This new technique may lead millions of paralyzed people around the world on a new road for treatment and improvement. A revolutionary implant of regenerative cells has knitted back together the spinal cord of wheelchair-bound firefighter, Fidyk, who was paralyzed from the chest down in a knife attack, restoring sensation and muscle control to his legs. What is the secret?

Well, the unique technique was developed by researchers at University College London and put into practice by surgeons in the Polish city of Wroclaw. It uses specialist human cells which repair damage to nasal nerves to enable spinal nerve fibres to re-grow and bridge a severed cord. Nasal nerves? Yes, nerve cells from the nose were surgically implanted in Darek’s spinal cord to help with regrowth. These cells are known as olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs), which were inserted into an 8mm gap in Fidyk’s spinal cord. He had a less than one percent chance of even the slightest recovery. Dr Pawel Tabakow developed the technique to implant cultured OECs harvested from a patient’s own olfactory bulb - and another type of nasal cell known as a fibroblast - on the stumps of a severed spinal cord. A scaffolding of nerve tissue was taken from the ankle to join the two ends of the cord to encourage bridging by the cells.

However, the OEC implants eventually began to regenerate the “stumps” on the spinal cord, which returned feeling to Fidka’s legs. Professor Geoffrey Raisman, the head of UCL’s Institute of Neurology who conducted the groundbreaking research into OECs, told The Independent: “I believe this is the first time that a patient has been able to regenerate severed long spinal nerve fibres across an injury and resume movement and feeling. I believe we have now opened the door to a treatment of spinal cord injury which will get patients out of wheelchairs. Our goal is to develop this first procedure to a point where it can be rolled out as a worldwide general approach.”

He added: “We believe that this procedure is the breakthrough which, as it is further developed, will result in a historic change in the currently hopeless outlook for people disabled by spinal cord injury.” Within 19 months of the operation, Darek was able to discern the direction of movement in his feet up to 85% accuracy. In a documentary, he stated “When it starts coming back, you feel as if you start living your life again, as if you are born again.”

Read More

Parts of the Brain: The Brainstem

Now for even more neuroscience! What are the basic parts of the brain, and what functions do they serve? This post will attempt to summarize the importance of the brain stem. We will pick up again with neuroanatomy and describe the basic functions of the brain stem.

There are mainly three different parts of the brain - the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem.

The brain stem is the “simplest” part of the three complex brain structures. It is also found in some shape or form in most animals. It helps mediate many of your involuntary functions such as your heartbeat and breathing. The brain stem primarily consists of the Midbrain, the Pons, and the Medulla Oblongata.

The midbrain (known by neuroscientists as the mesencephalon) is primarily composed of the tectum, tegmentum, and the cerebral peduncle. These parts are especially important for regulating body movement, as well as vision and hearing. The cerebral peduncle essentially contains the axons that transfer the messages from the cerebrum all the way down to the brain stem, allowing (voluntary) motor control of the body.

The Pons is actually a part of the metaencephalon (not mesencephalon) which is located in the hindbrain and connects to the cerebellum to enable proper balance and posture (in addition to movement). The pons is also responsible for creating the “consciousness” necessary for sleep (which is, of course, crucial to human life). Finally, it is able to interpret the information it receives from the motor control functions.

The medulla is especially vital to the human body. We do not think about breathing or beating our heart. Instead, this part of the brain is responsible for our involuntary muscle movement, such as heartbeat and breathing rates. With the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem all working together to control, develop, and maintain the human body, we can be sure that our brain is the most important part.

Read More

Parts of the Brain: Cerebellum

Now for some more neuroscience! What are the basic parts of the brain, and what functions do they serve? This post will attempt to summarize the importance of the cerebellum. And by summarize, this would be akin to writing a book for teens – this post will not go in depth into neuro-anatomy of the cerebellum (rather the important functions the cerebellum serves).

There are mainly three different parts of the brain - the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem.

The cerebellum is often referred to as the “little brain” and has been present for longer than the cerebrum in humans (it is a much older structure). It controls basic and essential bodily functions such as posture, balance, and coordination – allows people to move and maintain their structure and stance. It also

It is also responsible for motor coordination – the cerebellum enables one to learn how to ride a bike or play a sport. It has a certain function that enables coordination of movement. That is, if one set of muscles is initiated (through one part of the cerebellum), then the other part acts like an opposing set which functions like a brake. This is what allows for fine motor control (especially distal).

Reaction time and visual memory are also mediated by the cerebellum. This enables a person to be able to perceive his or her surroundings and respond accordingly to visual “cues” or stimuli. However, this also means that damage to this part of the brain can be extremely hazardous, especially if driving an automobile. Alcohol can therefore inhibit motor coordination (by enhancing the inhibition of granule cells found in the granular layer of the cerebellum). In autism, certain parts of the cerebellum have not been fully developed and are therefore insufficient for normal function. All in all, the cerebellum is a vital part of the human brain, and without its proper function, we would not be able to survive.

Read More

Parts of the Brain: Cerebrum

Now for some neuro-anatomy. What are the basic parts of the brain, and what functions do they serve? This post and the following two posts will together attempt to provide a basic description of the parts of our brain.

There are mainly three different parts of the brain - the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem.

The cerebrum. It is the largest part of our brain by far, and it is also responsible for most of the processes that occur in our brains. The cerebrum is divided into 4 sections called “lobes” – the Frontal Lobe, the Parietal Lobe, the Temporal Lobe, and the Occipital lobe. Additionally, the brain itself is split into 2 hemispheres which are joined by a band of nerve fibers called the corpus callosum. This structure allows the two brain halves to communicate with one another. Interesting things also happen when this ending is severed through surgery, but that will be the topic of another post.

The frontal lobe is at the front of the brain. It is responsible for problem solving, creative skills, intellect, judgment, behavior, attention, physical reactions, muscle movements, coordinated movements, smell, abstract thinking, and personality. The frontal lobe also has an area which is called the prefrontal cortex – situated at the frontmost part of the brain. This structure gives humans the unique ability to simulate outcomes – that is, envision the consequences if a particular action is taken.

The Parietal Lobe is behind the frontal lobe and is responsible for language, reading, comprehension, reading, tactile, and sensory comprehension. It contains the sensory cortex which relays information from tactile sensations as well as proprioception as well as the motor cortex, which monitors body movement.

The temporal lobe, located on the lab and right-hand sides of the cerebrum, is responsible for visual and auditory memories as well as managing some speech and hearing capabilities. It includes Wernicke’s Area which forms around the auditory complex and helps formulate and understand speech, but much is unknown about the function of this area.

The occipital lobe, situated in the back of the brain, helps control vision. It includes Broca’s Area which controls the facial neurons and helps understand speech and language.

Read More

Development of the Brain

Your brain continuously perceives information coming from all parts of your body. As it perceives this information, it learns and continues to grow. You continue to learn more and more throughout most of your life. But when does the brain stop developing? Most, if not all, cultures recognize the age of adulthood to be 18 years old. It is widely held that at this point in one’s life, the brain stops developing and you are “mature”at that point. However, many studies suggest otherwise. A new directive is being initiated for psychiatrists which increases the age of adulthood till 25 years old. Why? "We are becoming much more aware and appreciating development beyond [the age of 18] and I think it's a really good initiative," says Laverne Antrobus, a child psychiatrist who works at London's Tavistock Clinic, who believes we often rush through childhood, wanting our youngsters to achieve key milestones very quickly.

Many psychiatrists and even scientsts are developing a new understanding of adolescent emotional maturity, as well as hormonal and brain activity. Antrobus states that, “Neuroscience has made these massive advances where we now don't think that things just stop at a certain age, that actually there's evidence of brain development well into early twenties and that actually the time at which things stop is much later than we first thought." There are three stages of adolescence that psychiatrists are beginning to follow:

Early Adolescence – 12-14
Middle Adolescence – 15-17
Late Adolescence – 18+

Scienistists show that until the prefrontal cortex (responsible for making prudent decisions) is fully developed, a young person’s cognitive development continues into the later stage of adolescence. This view sheds new light on the wide perception of “early”adulthood in adolescents. 

Read More

The Cognitive Neuroscience of Sleep and the Consequences of Sleep Deprivation

All animals need sleep. Why? To be honest, we don't know for sure. Sleeping, however, is essential for regulating our bodily functions. We need it for functioning efficiently and productively. But what happens when you don't get enough sleep? 

Many of us wake up feeling groggy and exhausted, often prone to uncontrollable yawning. We begin to accumulate what is known as "sleep debt" - if we continue to sleep less (Under 7-8 hours for teenagers), our cognitive processes slowly begin to deteriorate over time. Additionally, people who sleep less than 7 hours a night have an increased risk of obesity, heart disease, diabetes, coupled with a higher risk of death.

A study at the University of California Irvine shockingly suggested that sleep depression may also be responsible for false memories - that is, incorrect information is absorbed and the individual forms memories of things that did not happen. In this study, one experiment involved asking participants if they had seen Flight 93 crashing in Pennsylvania on 9/11. The researchers claimed that footage of this incident had been circulating widely, even though no such footage existed. They found that, "Participants who had gotten five hours or less of sleep the night before ("restricted" sleepers) were more likely than the normal sleepers to claim that they had seen the footage. Fifty-four percent of those with restricted sleep claimed to have seen it, whereas only 33 percent of normal sleepers claimed to remember the non-existent footage."

Clearly there are many side effects associated with sleep deprivation, but there are possibly some ways to overcome your “sleep debt” should you have accumulated any. A “power nap” is the most highly recommended form of rejuvenating your body after feeling exhausted. Many recommend that it only be around 20-30 minutes so as not to leave you feeling groggy when you wake up. This way, you are not letting your body enter deep sleep. Another recommends that you just get your sleep! About 7-8 hours a night is the ideal amount, but there may be a caveat: sleep cycles. When you sleep, you enter different levels of consciousness (there are 4). Two main types of sleep are NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement - also known as quiet sleep) and REM (Rapid Eye Movement - also known as active sleep or paradoxical sleep). These are cycles that last approximately 90 minutes when you sleep. If you perfectly time it so that you wake up at the end of your sleep cycle, you will likely be fresher and more active when you wake up (7.5 hours would give you 5 sleep cycles in total).

Read More

Obama BRAIN Initiative Backs Technology and Research in Neuroscience

One of President Obama's most altruistic scientific advancement efforts - a story that has been receiving minimal coverage in the face of fatuous celebrity gossip - involves the BRAIN initiative (Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies). Last April, Obama announced the BRAIN initiative with its mission statement to revolutionize our understanding of the human brain. This year, he followed up with additional news :

 “Last year, I launched the BRAIN Initiative to help unlock the mysteries of the
brain, to improve our treatment of conditions like Alzheimer’s and autism and to
deepen our understanding of how we think, learn and remember. I’m pleased to
announce new steps that my Administration is taking to support this critical
research, and I’m heartened to see so many private, philanthropic, and academic
institutions joining this effort.”

President Obama- September 30, 2014


What "new steps"? Well, the President granted $46 Million in awards to 58 leading research groups across the world. In turn, these groups and individuals hope to make significant advancements in research and technology over the next decade.

Neuro-research is relatively new; what we currently know about the brain has only been discovered in the last few decades. Much of the information we know about Neurological Diseases is relatively new as well. Which is why it is vital for scientists to continue to expand knowledge the field of neuroscience and neurotechnology. Unfortunately, funding should not be a limitation or constraint, but it is. The White House BRAIN initiative seeks to foster advancement in treating diseases, but that will mainly become possible through breakthroughs in research. Funding essentially enables the usage of quicker, more accurate, and more efficient tools that would be needed to treat these disorders or neurodegenerative diseases (such as Alzheimer's'). In doing so, the BRAIN initiative has paved the way for future success in neuroscience.

Read More